Saturday, August 31, 2019

Drug Trafficking in the United States Essay

Drug trafficking has become an even bigger problem than ever before in the world today. Now days, more people are buying, selling and using drugs. To people who do it, it is just a fast and easy way to get money, not knowing all the risks. Some drug dealers are even aware of the risk that comes with the action and they still do it anyways. There are many risks when dealing drugs and the risks are all different depending on what kind of drug it is and how addictive it is. Drugs are not only spreading fast through the streets, but today drugs and dealers have found their way into high school systems. The most common drug in high school is marijuana, more commonly known as pot or weed, and hashish or â€Å"hash. † Although this drug is said to be harmless or not addicting, it can still be dangerous in many ways. This is the reason drug trafficking in the USA must be stopped. Illegal drug trafficking from Mexico into the United States is and has been killing our society for many years. For decades, the border of the United States with Mexico has been used to smuggle illegal drugs into the country with the intention to sell it for illegal usage. Many of the drugs come from Mexico or other South American countries where drugs are easily grown. Once the drugs are grown and packed, they are then smuggled across the borders of Mexico and the United States. When the illegal drugs reach the United States, they are then distributed to many drug dealers around the country. These substances are then sold in our neighborhoods, our cities and states to those corrupted enough to purchase them. Sometimes the people that buy these large quantities of drugs have drug addictions, but a lot of the time it’s people that are addicted to money that sell to the addicts for a price of good profit. Customs Agents and x-ray devices that are at the borders are the only factors that need to be bypassed in order to successfully smuggle drugs into the United States. A lot of the times, illegal substances are stopped and confiscated at our borders. However, the effort to prevent the smuggling of drugs has not reached a one hundred percent success rate. Organized crime groups from Mexico have been smuggling marijuana into the United States since the early 1970s. Which may be surprising to some, being that president Richard Nixon declared a â€Å"war on drugs† in 1971. These groups maintain a wide range of associates, often related through family or regional ties to associates living in the United States. In my opinion this makes drug trafficking seem even more dangerous than it already is. It’s scary enough that people are sneaking drugs into our country, but knowing that they live here and not knowing where or who is even scarier. According to Mark Kleiman, â€Å"Most of the illicit drugs consumed in the United States come through or from Mexico, and virtually all the revenue of Mexican drug-trafficking organizations comes from sales to the United States†. What this says to me is that the United States has got to be at the top of the charts for the largest illegal drug trafficking market. This also means that not only are other countries at fault for bringing illegal drugs into our country, but the drug dealers and drug users that live in our country are making the United States seem at fault as well for keeping the system going. If you ask me, the president of Mexico should worry about the amount of legal drugs leaving his country and declare somewhat of a â€Å"war on drugs† like president Richard Nixon did in 1971. Although the war on drugs still continues, it at least makes it known that there is a solution in progress and sooner or later it will be in effect. â€Å"Mexico is the highway of the drug trade, not the destination-or so goes the conventional wisdom†, says Malcolm Beith. (Newsweek. New York: August 17, 2009 Vol. 154, Iss. 7) The United States has been fighting a losing war against drugs for decades. Budgets have increased dramatically over the last two decades and drug-related incarcerations consistently reach new records yet drug problems worsen: adolescent drug abuse is increasing, overdose deaths are at record levels, heroin and cocaine are cheaper, more pure and more available than ever before, and health problems related to drugs, especially the spread of HIV/AIDS are peaking. Meanwhile an expensive and ineffective policy is failing to work at a rate of speed that is sufficient enough. Drug problems can be reduced at less cost if we change course and start thinking and using strategies that actually work. At a time like this when the federal budget is limited programs need to be re-evaluated. Funding needs to go to programs that work. We need new ideas to save lives; we can’t afford to continue to be wrong. Police have done their jobs with record arrests, drug seizures and record incarceration of drug offenders yet drug problems continue to worsen. Something different must happen soon before this growing problem becomes too out of hand. According to the National Coalition for Effective Drug Policies, there are a number of different things that may have to happen to ensure a change. These are, shift resources into programs that work, make treatment available on request like any other health service, prevent drug abuse by investing in American youth and providing them with accurate information, focus law enforcement resources on the most dangerous and violent criminals, international drug control efforts should be demilitarized and focus on economic development, restore justice to the US justice system, respect state’s rights and allow new approaches to be tried, and make prevention of HIV and other blood borne diseases a top priority. This may seem like a lot on paper but in exchange for a better society it is no question that whatever needs to happen must happen quick. The war on drugs has now been going on for over forty years and our government still continues to fight hard to end it. As long as our government stays strong and continues to pursue this problem, I believe that it will one day happen. And possibly even more important than that, as long as we citizens of the United States stay strong and say no to drugs or drug activity, we will continue to grow as a country and make for a better place to grow and raise our children.

Nature of thought

Thinking: the activity of the brain that can potentially be communicated. Inform thoughts become your words become your actions become your habits become your character become you. † (Gary R. Kirby and Jeffery R. Godparent, Thinking, 2007) What makes human thinking unique is the fact that our thoughts are made up of language. Language allows us to see things differently by channeling our thinking and perceptions. Our thoughts are influenced by the language we use to describe them.The languages we use may too be influenced by personal barriers. Personal barriers include self- serving biases, cognitive distortions that put us in a favorable position. Stereotypes, being biased toward members of a certain group. Emotional influences also effect and inspire human thought. Emotion is what differentiates human beings from animals. We as humans think to communicate, using different languages that are influenced by barriers based upon memories. Memory plays an important role in thinking . Without memory we can't think. According to Richard Paul and LindaElder, Journal of Developmental Education, â€Å"Everything we learn is related to everything we learn and learning things in relation to each other makes each of the things we learn more memorable, more intelligible, and more useful. † Without memory we'd have no future to imagining and no past to consider. Getting an adequate amount of sleep is essential to the critical thinking process. Sleep debt can negatively affect our mood, motivation, memory, decision making, concentration, problem solving, and logical thinking (Corer, 1996). So in order to think big we must stimulate the brain with intellectual activity and enhance our memory.Enhancing memory includes making information meaningful, by associating new information with what we already know well, by using mnemonic techniques and by repetition and practice. Listening to the recollections of others and being open to the possibilities. Finding relevance o f the information, how it relates to our lives, increases its meaning and makes it more memorable. Now let's use my memory. I can remember when I found out I was pregnant with my first child. I thought I had gotten sick. I didn't feel well, very low amount of energy. Well I was sick, but it wasn't the sickI was thinking where I could go buy something over the counter and it be gone in a few days. I was suffering from morning sickness, the nauseous feeling a woman's body goes through in the first trimester of pregnancy. The difference in my thoughts and reality was that a baby was coming. A child, a life changing experience. I had all kinds of thoughts going through my head. First, I had to acknowledge that I was soon to be called â€Å"Mommy'. Which then lead to other thoughts like if I was good enough to be parent at the age of 22. I thought what my family would think of me being that I as still young and not married.I was concerned on what the father of my child would say when I told him. After informing my family and accepting this important role that was coming into play. I began taking prenatal classes to educate myself on being a mother. I enrolled in college and begin taking Early Childhood Education courses. I learned that having my daughter pushed me into the field of working with children and having a passion for the work that I do. In the beginning I was nervous, worried about what others would think of me. Encapsulation was a personal barrier s I was raised to believe that one should be married before she has a child.My emotions were out of control the first couple of months as I thought to myself that I wasn't fit for the circumstances. After all that I have to say that I am a wonderful mother despite all my fears and that my thoughts from then have influenced and encouraged me to believe that can handle all situations, and to see something good out of anything that we are faced with.

Friday, August 30, 2019

Defining Beauty Essay

The word â€Å"beauty† can mean an unlimited amount of things to so many people. Some people see beauty as a woman with a small figure, with her hair and makeup done like that of a model in a magazine. Others may see beauty as more of an internal asset, such as a woman giving more to this world than she knows she’ll ever get back. Still, many others may see beauty as something that is unattainable because the definition of it is so ironically undefined and ambiguous, that it may even be seen as non-existent. Beauty is extremely versatile and its definition is often debated because beauty has unlimited definitions. No one’s definition of beauty is wrong. However, it does exist and can be seen with the eyes and felt with the heart. The first and most commonly referred to definition of beauty is external beauty, or superficial beauty. â€Å"Beauty is only skin-deep†, as some people may say. The general public typically views beauty as something that often must be seen to be believed; a girl is not pretty unless she can prove it with appearance. â€Å"In the perpetual â€Å"body image debate† on Xanga and in the world, there are frequently posts that say, basically: â€Å"All sizes can be beautiful! It’s what’s inside that counts anyways!† Multiple commenters will agree with them, and everyone descends into gooey e-group-hugs. What they’re trying to do†¦ is nice. I won’t argue with â€Å"all sizes can be beautiful†Ã¢â‚¬â€œ I have my preferences and you have yours, and ideally we won’t bash one group or the other despite those preferences. I also won’t argue with â€Å"what’s inside counts,† because it’s obvious that one’s personality directly affects the way one is able to bond with people over time. But, to those who try to proclaim â€Å"looks don’t matter,† I say: Bullshit.† (Walker 2010). Whether this mentality is seen as ethically wrong or not, it IS a mentality and it IS acknowledged. If a person believes beauty is solely defined by physical appearance, then that is their individual opinion, and cannot be taken away from them, or marked as â€Å"wrong†. The second form of beauty, most naturally comes to mind as what’s known as â€Å"internal beauty†. You’ll most often hear things like â€Å"It’s what on the  inside that matters!† â€Å"Happy girls are the prettiest!† and the infamous â€Å"You have a great personality and that’s what matters!† Internal beauty IS what’s on the inside, obviously. Internal beauty is personality, charisma, lovingness, generosity; all the characteristics that typically make a person â€Å"beautiful† on the inside. â€Å"As I grew up, I began to realize outer beauty was not so important to make someone good. I remember a friend of mine who was so beautiful that every classmate wanted to talk with her, but she was very arrogant. She believed that she could do everything she wanted because she was so beautiful, but she lost friends one by one. My poor friend! But she learned a good lesson: inner beauty is more important than outer beau ty. After she learned that, she changed her attitude and made friends again.† (Ji 2010). Many people still believe that inner beauty is as important as outer beauty, while still some believe it is more important. This mentality is not wrong because it makes sense to the people that believe it. It must be acknowledged whether people think personality is more important than makeup, or not. And still, some people believe and feel that beauty can only be defined by the person who feels it. In other words, my internal and external beauty is examined and defined by the rest of the world, without me having anything to say about it. This particular definition says that that individual person, in this example being me; that I get to say whether I’m beautiful or not based off of how I feel, not the rest of the world, based off of one or both of the previous definitions. It is simply, what you define yourself as. â€Å"I know I looked beautiful that morning. Perhaps not to the young man holding his toddler in his arms who rode the elevator with me; perhaps not to the friend I met for lunch, a true believer in Botox; perhaps not to passersby on the street; but I knew it for a certainty. I was beautiful. I don’t believe that inner beauty is sufficient in this cruel world. That’s the pap one tells a child. I don’t believe that positive thinking improves your skin tone or that loving or being loved changes the shape of your nose or restores the thickness and color of hair, but I do know that there is a way of being beautiful, even as age takes its toll, that has something to do with the spirit filling with joy, something to do with the union with another human being, with the sense of having done well at something  enormously important, like making happy a man who has made you happy often enough.† (Roiphe 2012). Beauty cannot be defined as a single thing. It has no bounds; no limits as to say how beautiful something or someone can be, or if it’s beautiful or not. Beauty can’t be erased because it is forever living. No person sees it the exact same way. No one’s definition of it is incorrect because it has many definitions. Beauty exists, and can be felt more and more ways every day of our lives. Works Cited Ji, EunSuk. â€Å"Inner Beauty Is the Real Beauty – TOPICS Online Magazine | ESl/EFL | Sandy and Thomas Peters.† Inner Beauty Is the Real Beauty – TOPICS Online Magazine | ESl/EFL | Sandy and Thomas Peters. N.p., 07 Dec. 2010. Web. 13 Nov. 2013. . Roiphe, Anne. â€Å"What Makes Me Feel Beautiful.† Real Simple. N.p., 13 Aug. 2012. Web. 13 Nov. 2013. . Walker, Alexia. â€Å"Outer Beauty Totally Matters (Don’t Try to Deny It).† lovelyish.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Nov 2013. .

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Business strategic management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business strategic management - Assignment Example The global business environment is offering a broad range of business opportunities and new clients, and thus allowing Starbucks to create different brands to cater for its market needs. The company is continuing to work towards realizing its long-term goals so as to emerge as the most reputable coffee company across the globe. However, despite the growth that the company is realizing, questions arise as to whether Starbucks is growing in the best way or whether it is exceeding its quest for growth (Richard Ivey School of Business, 2009). This paper will address the various issues that face Starbucks in its quest to emerge as the most preferred company in the world. Every company that undertakes its operations in the global market place encounters a number of issues that hinder their progress, even in the case of the most profitable companies such as Starbucks. Though the company has managed to witness outstanding reputation, it is still facing a number of issues like any other company in the global market place. For instance, with the advent of financial crisis, most companies suffer from the state of the economy, and Starbucks is no exception. There has been a number of store closures as a result of poor economic performance in major economies around the world. The number of stores that Starbucks depended on various factors such as finalization of third party agreements, income tax, expected cost savings as well as other benefits that are affiliated with the closure of stores. For instance, with the growing competition, from various companies in different parts of the globe, Starbucks has been unable to cope with the deteriorating performance of its stores, and hence leading to their closure (Richard Ivey School of Business, 2009). Competition is a common state of affairs in every business enterprise. There are a large number of coffee stores in various parts of the world. As a result, it

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Critical Thinking Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical Thinking Questions - Essay Example The use of this method will provide different ways of making sense of ideas, developing product, attaining content, and processing information so as to promote effective learning. Question a (ii) The six-column framework highlights the basics of an individual. Everyone must employ these questions to be complete. In addition, scopes of the framework classification technique, the abstractions, and perspectives are complete and can categorize any concept or knowledge. An individual can utilize the what, who, how, where, why, and when questions to classify students. This is because the differentiated instruction understands every student is unique. This framework will assist the teacher to instruct according to student’s learning style and needs. The framework will also determine the students’ skills, level of knowledge, and comprehension in a unit of study. Question a (iii) The leader may employ the framework to assess the readiness and growth level of students. This will help improve instruction. The leader may use the framework to retrieve information on different aspects, for example; the leader may ask the instructor â€Å"how can below average students improve?† or â€Å"how are the students coping with the new teaching techniques?† The different responses will guide the leader on areas that need Improvement or change. The leader may also employ the framework to ensure students are responsible and active. This framework will make both the instructors and students fill challenged whenever they are engaged in an activity, in class (Caine & Caine, 1994). This will help improve instruction or change instruction. Question b (i) Concept formation is an inductive educating technique that assist learners establish an apparent understanding of an idea or concept by examining a small number of examples of a concept. Concepts may be presumed to be fittings in the mind. A mind that is well fitted provides lifelong learning, joy, career satisfa ction, citizenship, and academic satisfaction. When the teachers create a concept from its example, they know more exists to a practice or concept. For example, if they see a student is underperforming in class, they know there is more to it than lack of understanding or grasping of ideas (Tomlinson, 1999). Step 1 allows the teachers examine their preferred or presumed comfortable learning environment. Step 2 permits the teacher compare their findings on suitable learning environment and enable them device the most suitable environment. Step 3 enables the teachers categorize the learning environment in terms of the most suitable. Question b (ii) The steps will act as a pre-assessment to the extent to which the teachers have established their concepts. This is because the proof is not in the decisions they have reached, but the reasons they will provide. In addition, each step provides the leader a chance to understand the backgrounds, interests, weaknesses, strengths, and the dissim ilarities between the teachers in several areas. The pre-assessment will also allow the teachers become extra purposeful in conducting class activities. Question c (i) The factors include cooperative learning groups, ability grouping of learners, class size, and the instructor. Cooperative groups have learners with strong class cohesion, positive perception, adequate degree of social support, and high scores of achievement. The ability grouping

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Grocery Store Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Grocery Store - Assignment Example The methods involved in attracting customers, choosing the right location, Inventory and supply chain management, security are major factors which affect the sale of goods. The interaction levels at such places are very high. Spot decisions needs to be taken in times of crisis, customer satisfaction and their feedback is also very important in such businesses. When one observes the functioning of such an organization, is when he realizes the complexity of management. Thus management provided professional training to the employees of the store to deal with customers and their needs. It's not the service alone; they also need to act as consultants to some confused customers. This is when you know that management is a mix of both art and science. Rash behavior of an employee can affect the reputation of the store hence they also are trained on formal behavioral skills. The manager has a major role to play, he is the guiding force and the decision maker in most of the situations, though he is not involved in every activity a report is given to him in the end of the day to analyze on the financial budget statement. Security teams were always alert; there ti mes when they were proactive. There are miscreants who always look out for an opportunity to show their skills at such places. Security cameras are also installed at various corners to record any such activity. The billing machines were also very smart, as the details of the goods are entered; a screen was projected towards the customer for correctness. Hence the observation at one such store gives an idea on Inventory management, financial management, marketing and promotional structures and last but not the least people the management skills. Participation observation at a Grocery store A Review of the Literature April 21, 2009, 10:30 am, New York City Number of men employed: 9 Number of women employed: 2 In total: 11, Time of entry: 9 am, Time of exit: 8 pm. Lunch time: 1 to 1.30 pm. ActivitiesThe total area of the grocery store is 2200 sq. ft, there are four rows of stocks each having 6 shelves. A store room is located at the right corner. The managers' cabin is situated diagonally opposite to the store room. There are two ladies at the billing counters. A man is appointed, who shifts grocery from the store room to the shelves. There is another man who is responsible for fixing price tags to goods. A person was appointed to clean the floors. There are two guards who are stationed at the entrance and exit of the store. The day starts, when the manager briefs them about the routine for the day and the important tasks which are to be done by individuals and in a group. The store is then ready to do business. As customers pour in employees get busy. ConversationsThere are mainly two types of conversations which take place namely Internal & external. Internal conversations mean employees converse with each other on the various activities. If the shelves have enough inventory, if there are enough paper rolls in the billing section etc. External conversations means engaging in talks with customers to help them and provide them service to make

Monday, August 26, 2019

Market Research Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Market Research - Assignment Example This report is designed to have an insight about an organization that is about to conduct some market research into consumer buying habits for the products and services that this company has for sale. Henry John Heinz, the founder of this company said that he learned from his parents’ idea of business which was, â€Å"Deal with the seller so justly that he will want to sell to you again.† He believed in fair play in the business and this quality of him had made him a successful businessman. Heinz is a $10.7 billion global company. The products of Heinz enjoy #1 or #2 market share in more than 50 countries. Every year the company sells 650 million bottles of its iconic Ketchup. Heinz's top 15 power brands are counted as more than two-thirds of its annual sales. There are about 35000 people that are employed by Heinz in almost 50 countries around the globe. Heinz is a responsible corporate citizen dedicated to safe practices, environmental stewardship and giving back to t he society (Heinz Company, Pittsburgh, 2012). 2.0 Research Options What is the correct option for doing research either through external consultancy agency for the market research or the option of doing the research in the company itself. 2.1.0 External Consultants Many organizations take the assistance of external consultants in identifying, recommending and implementing change. There have been companies which have been successful while there are some which have failed after having consultancy from external consultants. First, there needs to be cooperation with the consultant from the entire top management and not merely the CEO or a few directors/managers. Next, there cannot be any information that is out of action from the external consultants. The solution to transformation is that complete information about the organization and its strengths and most prominently, its flaws must be visible. The other feature that makes organizations rely on external consultants is since these co nsultants have knowledge in dealing with companies in similar industries and hence can relate their expertise and experience to advise specific changes. 2.1.1 Advantage of External Consultants 1. External Agencies have research skills that are industry specific. These niche considerations are such that the organization can customize different external agencies to specific internal needs as a means of maximizing their marketing strategy (Joshi 2005). 2. External Contractors have access to target sectors; hence they have underlying knowledge of best practices. Accompanied within this spectrum of understanding are recognitions that industries niches aren’t only accompanied by a specific skill set, but also industry contacts and statistical research that can advance their marketing goals (Joshi 2005). 3. External Agency contractors bring objective viewpoints. The nature of institutional culture has been theorized to have a significant and profound impact on decision-making and co mpany practices. While such uniformity of perspective has noted strategic advantages, oftentimes the external viewpoints that are accompanied with outside agencies can add these fresh and much needed insights (Joshi 2005). 4. They are much quicker as compared to internal research. These agencies have developed streamlining techniques that allow

Sunday, August 25, 2019

The Principles of Scientific Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Principles of Scientific Management - Essay Example However, the area of HRM is exceptionally complex and multilateral: there are many different theories and views on the nature, methods, and techniques of management described in the abundant organizational literature. Â  Since the emergence of organizational science in the late 19th - early 20th century, the scholars have been sharing two dominant views on organizational culture. Apologists of one paradigm led by Frederick Taylor and Harrington Emerson (School of Scientific Management) believed that organizational culture was just one of the tools to ensure greater control over employees. Representatives of another approach such as Elton Mayo, Abraham Maslow, and Douglas McGregor (Human relations school) postulated that organizational culture was supposed to develop and motivate the employees without excessively rigid control (Schultz & Shultz 2002). Although each of these major paradigms has contributed significantly to the development of contemporary HRM, they rely upon entirely different principles and assumptions. Â  The process of industrialization and sophistication of businesses that occurred during the last decade of the 19th century seriously changed the traditional managerial practices. Increasing the efficiency of labor became the key priority within the system of company-employee relationship. The concept of scientific management described by Frederick Taylor was the first systematic approach designed specifically to improve the labor efficiency of employees within the new system of work relationships (Taylor 1911). Taylor strongly believed that organizational culture was one of the most effective instruments to influence the employees and improve their performance and listed the most important elements of the ideal organizational culture. Â  Taylor believed that the most effective approach to managing human resources should not be different from the approach used to manage other elements of the production process. Consequently, the Taylorian model of management relied on the assumption that the average employee was lazy, ignorant, passive, and lacked the motivation to perform effectively.

Saturday, August 24, 2019

Tuition Fee Spikes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Tuition Fee Spikes - Essay Example However, because of the lack of initiatives of the Congress to control tuition fee spikes, students are forced not to assume to attain college degrees by simply thinking about the financial aid coming from the federal government and hoping for good luck. Students are forced to work hard if they don't have enough money to support themselves in college paying for high tuition fees, and realize they have the capability to act on it. After all, college education is an essential tool for attaining the needed ways of getting success in the future careers. College education truly aids an individual to attain success (Rye 4). Being successful in college implies having the need to obtain the critical tools and skills that will lead to earning a degree. However, the Congress simply cannot interfere as to how the tuition fees are being laid down among private and prestigious universities and colleges in the country. Normally, the tools essential in college success are enough knowledge, skills and proper mentality, all of which can be obtained by being a part-time worker and student. These tools can be successfully merged with college education. College education gives an individual with particular knowledge on the subject in which the individual wishes to do his part. College education allows an individual to obtain knowledge and skills to analyze data critical in the pursuit of success objectives and in making right choices. College education, through the various stages of learning, includes the development of proper attitudes or the establishment of the appropriate behavior to attain success. However, because bright but impoverished students cannot afford to pay high tuition fees of top colleges and universities, they are forced to become part-time workers / students. Part-time workers and students, because of their hard luck lives, are able to develop optimism towards their capabilities to attain their objectives from attaining information and skills to evaluate skills and deficiencies in attaining the objectives. Part-time workers and students learn to maximize strengths and to evaluate deficiencies in order that the o pportunity of attaining an objective in college grows (McPherson 6). The emergence of part-time workers / students all over the country is the direct result of the Congress' inability to control the tuition fee spikes. A part-time worker and student rarely would save up for unnecessary luxuries while still in college which include big apartments, luxury cars, jewelries and other expensive things (Wilkinson 5). Therefore, by instilling responsibility and discipline in these students because no one, not even the Congress, will help them pay for their tuition fees but themselves in whatever they want to attain in college is definitely a positive attitude to inculcate in their minds. By hard work and perseverance, part-time workers and students will be able to attain their particular goals and desires without having to rely on the financial aid of the federal governmen

Friday, August 23, 2019

Viewing Disability Binary vs. Continuum Coursework

Viewing Disability Binary vs. Continuum - Coursework Example In this regard, viewing disability in a binary sense would be unfair as persons who have suffered disabilities because of one reason or the other. Therefore, it should be seen as a continuum and hence set as a bio-psychosocial representation incorporating both social and medical forms of disability. A binary view of disability would further hinder an interactive and accommodative situation of the complexities of his or her impairment or disability and the environment. Viewing the disability as a continuum would afford the individual the chance to see all aspects of their body functioning. It would also open for them the opportunity to exploit their capacity and partake in various activities. On the other hand, a binary view of disability would not consider the interrelation between the resultant interaction of contextual factors and an individuals health condition where disability should be regarded as an injury. It should also be measured in the context of the limitations in the activities an individual can perform their capacity and their performance at society levels hence. Schelly, D. (2008). Problems associated with choice and quality of life for an individual with intellectual disability: a personal assistants reflexive ethnography. Disability & Society, 23(7), 719-732.

The Home Depot in Chinese Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Home Depot in Chinese Market - Essay Example With this, home improvement comes up and there are numerous stores and companies that supply products and advice on how to make one’s home better by installing additional hardware and items to it. This is widely appreciated throughout the world, but in some cases it is only done by contractors based on the economic status of the people involved. One such company that provides these supplies Home Depot which operates across North America. However, attempts to venture into Asia failed miserably when the company attempted to establish itself in China by providing supplies for home improvement through do it yourself antics. Different reasons have cited for this failure, but there is no full consensus on the key causes of the failure of such a large company that was unable to replicate the success of its north American operations in China. This makes it necessary to look into the causes of this failure and how they served to drive the company out of China. Background The history of Home Depot spans over three decades since its inception in the year 1976 in Atlanta Georgia, where the initial Home Depot store was inaugurated in the same year. The main concept of opening the store was to provide comprehensive supplies to all clients who sought after home improvement equipment and provisions in the name of â€Å"do it yourself†. This made the company into a di it yourself supply chain across the state of Georgia after the establishment of additional stores. Besides this, there was also the provision of giving advice on home improvement to their clients and other customers purchasing supplies from their stores. With this home improvement target market focussing on do it yourself population types, it supplied partial and full components and products such as building, plumbing and electrical supplies. This is in addition to having a large selection of hand and power tools catering to both customers who preferred the traditional feel of hand tools over electri city powered tools (Miller 2). These also included an assortment of brands for maximum variety that even went beyond convention in regard to stocking gardening tools, where home improvement did not just imply the house or its aspects but the home in totality. The expansion of the store over the years has featured its listing in the New York Stock Exchange and even opening stores to hit a 100 in the year 1989 across all of the United States. Further expansion has gone to an extent of having over 2200 stores across the North American continent ranging from USA, Canada, Puerto Rico, Guam, Mexico and the US Virgin Island, and with these, expansion still continues (â€Å"Home Improvement Industry Profile†). With the success of the company across the continent, there were talks of further expansion into the world most populous nation, China. Reasons for the expansion into China was due to the large population that China has and the saturated retail market across the US, which saw t he company seek to expand into China. Another factor in consideration was the high amount of competition in China, where economic indicators were supportive of Home Depots expansion into China due to rapid growth of the Chinese economy especially following reforms after Mao’s reign as the Chinese communist leader. As such, the housing market had a lot of potential at the time of the feasibility for Home Depot to expand into China in that most of the houses in China were hardly complete or rather finished in that they needed further addition of features so that clients or home owners are charged with

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Skin cancer Essay Example for Free

Skin cancer Essay How many of you have every laid out in the sun on purpose just to get a tan?   Or better yet how many of you believe you look prettier or more handsome tan?   According to the American Cancer Society more than 1 million people are diagnosed with skin cancer each year and the numbers seem to be increasing day to day. And believe it or not skin cancer is the most common of all cancers.   Today I am going to inform you about skin cancer and how you can protect yourself from it. To begin, our skin is the largest organ of the body and it covers our internal organs and protects them from injury.   The skin also serves as a barrier between germs and our internal organs.   Our skin regulates body temperature and helps the body get rid of excess waste.   Certain cells in our skin also communicate with the brain and allow us the feel temperature, touch, and pain sensations. Some may ask, what exactly is skin cancer and why is it such a big deal now?   Well there are two basic types of skin cancer; Nonmelanoma (which is also called basal or squamous cell) skin cancer and then there is melanoma skin cancer. Most skin cancers are classified under nonmelanoma, meaning that the cells are located at the base of the outer, layer of the skin.   Basically, the skin that covers the surface of the body, not the deep tissues.   Nonmelanoma skin cancer usually develops on sun-exposed areas of the body, places like: the face, ears, necks, lips, and the backs of hands.   Depending on the type they can be fast or slow growing but rarely spreads to other parts of the body.   There is a cure for nonmelanoma skin cancer is detected and treated early. On the other hand, you have melanoma skin cancer.   Which is the more dangerous of the two; however it is also the least common.   Melanoma skin cancer tends to spread very quickly to other body parts.   However, it is almost always curable if it is detected in the early stages.   But the killer part is a lot of people do not realize that they may have melanoma skin cancer until the later stages, after it has already started affecting other organs.   Once it has reached that stage, it is virtually incurable.   People diagnosed with melanoma skin cancer that has already spread to other body parts are given on average a five year survival rate. So what puts you at risk for skin cancer?   Some high risk factors include:  · Unprotected and/or excessive exposure to Ultraviolet(uv) radiation  · Fair complexions( people with red hair, most likely)  · Occupational exposures (i.e. Construction workers, arsenic compounders, baseball players)  · Family history of skin cancer  · Multiple or atypical moles  · Severe sunburns as a child So how can you detect skin cancer? Some signs of skin cancer in the early stages may include but are not limited:  · any change on the skin, especially in the size or color of a mole or other darkly pigmented growth or spot, or a new growth  · scaliness, oozing, bleeding, or change in the appearance of a bump or nodule  · the spread of pigmentation beyond its border such as dark coloring that spreads past the edge of a mole or mark  · a change in sensation, itchiness, tenderness, or pain in a mole

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Analysis Of The Coconut Oil Industry Economics Essay

Analysis Of The Coconut Oil Industry Economics Essay The coconut oil milling industry, which started during over a century ago, is still active and exporting to other countries. This industry seems to have a huge potential for profit in both the local and global setting. Producing millions of metric tons of coconut oil, the Philippines is the top exporter of coconut oil; hence, the firms producing them are highly profitable. This paper investigates the profitability level of the coconut oil industry. Furthermore, the paper would be looking at its production and exports contributing to the economy. Lastly, the paper would take a look at its trends and how it affects Philippines GDP. The paper would be using statistics, tables, graphs and news to prove that the said industry is making profit up to this point. This paper hopes to achieve more insight on the coconut oil industry and learn more about its current state in the Philippine market. Introduction Background History Other than semi-conductors exports, the Philippines is also known for its coconut oil exports. The Philippines is presently the top exporter of coconut oil worldwide. In 1989, the Philippines was the second largest exporter after Indonesia. The Philippines is producing a lot of metric tons of coconut oil and exporting them to the world. Some of the countries that the Philippines cater to are United States, Netherlands, Japan, Italy, and China (Philippines coco oil exports up to 33.39 pct in November, 2010). The coconut oil industry started to bloom during the 1960s. The Philippine pesos devaluation during 1962 and 1970 respectively had increased the worlds demand for Philippine products such as coconut oil. Because of this devaluation, the land devoted to coconut oil has been increasing 6% per year which In the 1960s and 1970s land devoted to coconut oil cultivation has been increased by 6% per year due to the devaluation of Philippine peso in 1962 and 1970 respectively therefore increasing worlds demand for coconut oil. Because of this devaluations, the local government provided investment incentives to encourage the production/processing of coconut oil. The number of coconut mills grew from 28 to roughly 62 mills in 1979. (Philippine-Coconut Industry, 1991) During the Martial Law Regime in 1973, all coconut-related, government operations were placed under the control of one agency known as the Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA). The PCA was tasked to collect a levy of P 0.55 per 100 kilograms of copra to stabilize the domestic prices of coconut-based goods, particularly coconut cooking oil. In 1974, the Coconut Industry Development Fund was created for the development of hybrid coconut trees. In the same year, the PCA was overtaken by the Coconut Producers Federation or Cocofed, a group of coconut planters. In 1975, PCA acquired a bank which was renamed to United Coconut Planters Bank, to help coconut farmers in their business. (Philippine-Coconut Industry, 1991) In the early 1980s, as coconut prices began to fall, the government was pressured to alter the structure of the industry. The government was being forced to give up its monopolization of coconut oil. In 1985 the Philippine government agreed to dismantle the United Coconut Oil Mills as part of an agreement with the IMF to bail out the Philippine economy. By 1989, coconut trees occupied about 25% of cultivated land. It is estimated that around 25% to 33% of the population was at least partly dependent on coconuts for their livelihood. (Philippine-Coconut Industry, 1991) Research Coconut Industry The coconut industry is the biggest agricultural industry. Based on 2002 Census from the Department of Agriculture, the industry compromises roughly 1.4 million or at least 30% of the total farms in the Philippines. The production of coconut oil heavily rests on the coconut grown by the millions of farmers. The land that grows coconuts is totaled to be roughly 3.32 million ha which surprisingly is even bigger than the land used to produce rice (Dy, 2006). There are 65 coconut oil mills which have the capacity to crush 4.54 million tons of coconut a year (Dy, 2006). The agricultural sector employs almost 40 percent of the total labor force to produce agricultural products like rice, coconuts, etc. (Encyclopedia of Nations). Presently, 25 to 33 percent of the population is dependent of the coconut industry as their livelihood, whether it is through farming the coconuts or milling and refining them (Dolan, 1991). The government and United Coconut Association of the Phillippines (UCAP) declared that the coconut industry might be the next major employment sector of the Philippines (Coconut industry poised as next major employment sector, 2011). They projected that the employment coming from the coconut industry would significantly increase in size by end of 2016 (Coconut industry poised as next major employment sector, 2011). Market size Figure Coconut Oil ProductionThe Philippines, Indonesia, and India are the leading exporters of coconut oil in the Asia Pacific. They account for more 75% of the total production of coconut oil in the world (Smith Nyugen, 2009). It is estimated that the Philippines alone produces around 13 billion coconuts which is refined to oil (Dhanuraj, 2004). In 2011, the production of coconut oil in the Philippines was estimated to be roughly 1.7 million metric tons (Index Mundi, 2011). In the past five years, more and more coconut oil is being produced due to the efficiency of equipment and cultivation of land. The continuous trend in production of coconut oil is an indication of how stable the industry is. The fact that the industry can manufacture almost the same amount of coconut oil per year would show us how stable the industry is. Revenues on Exports Source: Bureau of Agricultural Statistics Figure 2 Coconut Oil Exports Figure Coconut Oil ExportsThe coconut oil industry is focused more on exporting cooking oil to other countries. There is no data on the revenue and profit of the industry in the local setting. Every four out of five metric tons produced in South East Asia, especially from the big three producers, are sent to either Europe or the United States (Smith Nyugen, 2009). Only one out of every five metric tons remains in Asia. The Philippines, being the top exporter of coconut oil in the world, has exported millions of metric tons in the past three years (Department of Agriculture, 2011)(see figure above). Furthermore in 2010, the Philippines has not only exported 1.3 billion metric tons of coconut oil, but also earned around 1.2 billion USD which is an outstanding revenue of 55 billion pesos (Department of Agriculture, 2011). During the First quarter of 2010, the prices were pegged at around 1000 USD (Department of Agriculture, 2011). GDP In recent years, the agricultural sector roughly contributes 12~15 percent of the Philippine GDP (Index Mundi, 2011). The agricultural sector had contributed roughly 4 billion USD in 2010. Coconut oil and tuna were computed to be 39.67% percent of the total GDP contributed by the agricultural sector (Department of Agriculture, 2002). The GDP of 2010 has risen by roughly 30.67% from the previous years GDP (Department of Agriculture, 2011). Though it is true that the GDP decreased in 2011, mathematically speaking the GDP contributed by the agricultural sector did not. During 2010, the GDP of the Philippines is roughly 7.3% and roughly 13.9% of comes from the agricultural sector (Instituto Espanyol De Comercio Exterior). In 2011, the GDP is roughly 3.7% which is significantly lower than the previous year, but the agricultural sector still maintains and contributes roughly 12.3% which is not bad (Index Mundi, 2011). Furthermore, on December 2011, coconut oil exports began to rise again by about 2.7% (Reuters, 2011).Thus, coconut oil exports would increase by the year 2012. The Philippine Coco Coir Industry forecasts that by 2016, the exports of coconut oil would increase by 400 percent (Coconut industry poised as next major employment sector, 2011). Importance to the Economy. According to the research done Roland Dy, Ph.D, the coconut oil industry is important to the economy of the Philippines. First, coconut farms are located in 68 out of the 79 provinces of the Philippines. Second, 30% of the total farmlands in the Philipines are coconut farms. Third, coconuts contribute half of the agricultural exports. Fourth, coconut farming lands have the largest potential of diversification. Fifth, it is a huge untapped resource pool for industry development (Dy, 2006). Not only has coconut oil been sold abroad as exports, but it also used as cooking oil. Coconut oil is also used in homes (Isip, 2012). A significant percentage of the market uses coconut oil. It is not only used by homes but also by biscuit industries. The National and Global Environment Technological Environment The Technological Environment of a business greatly affects its ability to produce its products and, therefore, affect its overall performance in the industry. In the Philippines in 1997, coconut production in copra equivalent accounted for 3.83% of the total production of agricultural crops (Aragon, 2000). The coconut production during 1990-1997 was a little small which was due to the slow growth rates in coconut hectarage (0.9%/year) and coconut-bearing trees (0.3%/year) (Aragon, 2000). During the period of 1990-1997, about 91% of the coconut production in the Philippines passes through the copra stage (Aragon, 2000). The minimal production of coconuts of the stagnant farm sector caused the over-capacity of the coconut industrial sector. According to the study done by the Philippine Coconut Industry, there are about 65 coconut oil mills with an installed copra crushing capacity of 4.54 million tons a year (Dy, 2006). According to another study made by them, the number of mills in t he Philippines rose from 28 in 1968 to 62 in 1979 (Phillipine Coconut Industry, 1991). There was also an issue of declining yields because of the aging of coconut trees in some regions (Phillipine Coconut Industry, 1991). Some coconut oil milling industries still use low technology machineries or techniques to produce coconut products. There have been many researches and experiments done to improve this industry. Technologies for coconut processing have been made but only a few of these reached the actual production areas. During a study made by Joey Faustino (2006), the farmers burn the higher value coconut husks/shell to dry the lower value output that is copra(coconut shell). This means that because of the low level technologies that are used by some of the farmers and companies, their level of output is also affected. A famous Malaysian newspaper republishes Wong Yee Tuans work, which says: In the late 19th century, a few businessmen introduced new technology and established Khie Heng Bee Mill, a modern rice and oil mill equipped with steam and hydraulic machinery. The mill was driven by a 60hp horizontal engine and the hydraulic oil presses were worked by a 24ho engine. It was capable of producing 100 piculs (6,000 kilos) of oil per day. It became one of the largest and most important industrial concerns in northern Malaya. The founders of this modern enterprise were Phuah Hin Leong, Chuah Yu Kay, Lim Leng Cheak, Cheah Joo Jin and Cheah Ewe Ghee. (Tuan, 2011) Their technological advancement affected their capability in producing their products. The initiative made by these businessmen inspired others to develop new technologies to improve the industry. In Zamboanga, the Zamboanga Coconut Research Center have produced around 20 hybrid coconut varieties according to the Philippine Coconut Administration (Gumapon). These hybrid coconut varieties were discovered to counter the dry spell (Gumapon). The Coconut Industry Investment Fund-Oil Mills also uses modern technologies in operating their plants. Their plants have a combined crushing capacity of 750,000 metric tons of copra with a refining capacity of 280,500 metric tons of different grades of processed coconut oils (CIIF Oil Mills Group). Having technological advancements helps the industry to improve. The modern technologies help the companies to produce more copra which in turn helps them produce more coconut oil. Economic Trends Coconut oil production is a constant all year round process. As long as there is a constant supply of coconut, coconut oil, and other by-products are constantly being refined and manufactured. Coconut oil products are sold to different firms all over the Philippines and are also exported to other countries all over the world. The Philippines mostly exports its products to countries like United States, Japan, Europe, and most of the ASEAN countries (Encyclopaedia of Nations). The Philippines, being the top producer and exporter of coconut oil, is rapidly growing during the last few years. In the last two years, 1.69 billion metric tons of coconut oil is being produced all over the Philippines (Index Mundi, 2011). But in the recent years, the exportation of coconut oil is slowing declining over the years. The coconut oil industry for 2011 exports roughly fell to .8 million metric tons from the 1.34 million of metric tons produced during 2010 (Olchondra, 2012). Decline in exports of coconut oil is being attributed to the 2011s large export of coconut oil. During January 2012, a coconut oil export is roughly 54,000 metric tons which is roughly half the exports of last year (Galvez, 2012). According to Yvonne Agustin, UCAP executive director the export of coconut oil is going to increase by the second quarter. She says, Right now, the demand for CNO is still weak since most of the foreign buyers still have plenty of stocks from last year, but we expect demand to pick up in the second quarter of the year (Galvez, 2012). According to a research by Asian and Pacific Coconut Community, coconut oil is being produce and exported in significant volumes (see figure below). During the early stages of the coconut oil industry, the production and exports of coconut oil is roughly 1.5 million metric tons and .5 million metric tons respectively. The market had grown so fast that the Philippines alone can produce the same amount of coconut oil in just a year time. (Vinay Chand Association) Figure Coconut Oil Production and ExportsProduction and Exports of Coconut Oil in Metric TonsC:UsersROBERT S. CHENGDesktopUntitled.png Source: Index MundiGlobal Environment Coconut oil accounts for approximately 20% of all vegetable oils used worldwide. Coconut oil is used in margarines, vegetable shortening, salad oils, confections, and in sports drinks to boost energy and enhance athletic performance. The total cultivation under coconut was estimated at 11.0 million hectares producing 55 million tons in 2004. Asia remained the largest producing region at 46 million tons or 85% of global production in 2004. In the western hemisphere, South America was a major producing region at 6% of production (Singh Seepersad Rankine eds, 2007) Philippines and Indonesia are the worlds two largest producers of coconut, with an estimated production of 16.3 million tons and 14.4 million tons from 3.3 million ha and 2.7 million ha respectively. In 2007, the Philippines produced 37% of total world production and Indonesia comes second with 29%. India, the third largest with 13%, produced an estimated 10 million tons from 1.9 million ha. Indonesia and the Philippines were major exporters while India consumed most of its coconut production. Central America, Brazil, Mexico (with 4%) and Jamaica were major producers in the Western Hemisphere (Singh Seepersad Rankine eds, 2007). World production in 2007 fell by -6.8% yr/yr to 4.652 million metric tons, and remains far below the record high of 5.662 million metric tons posted in 2001. (CRB Fundamentals 2008 Commodity Articles: Coconut Oil and Copra, 2008). This fact might be true for the worlds production of coconut oil. But the Philippines is still consistently performing well with 1.358 million metric tons and 1.625 million metric tons in 2001 and 2007 respectively (Index Mundi). The table that follows summarizes the world production of coconut oil in 2011. World Coconut Oil Production in 2011 Source: USDA Figure Coconut Oil Production 2011 Price of Coconut Oil in 2011 Source: Index Mundi Figure Coconut Oil Prices Percentage Change in Coconut Oil Prices in 2011 Jan 2011 2,063.00 Source: Index Mundi- Feb 2011 2,260.00 9.55 % Mar 2011 1,925.00 -14.82 % Apr 2011 2,088.00 8.47 % May 2011 2,097.00 0.43 % Jun 2011 1,803.00 -14.02 % Jul 2011 1,663.00 -7.76 % Aug 2011 1,454.00 -12.57 % Sep 2011 1,310.00 -9.90 % Oct 2011 1,208.80 -7.73 % Nov 2011 1,479.00 22.35 % Dec 2011 1,439.00 -2.70 % Figure Coconut Oil Price Change The world market price for coconut oil is constantly fluctuating. The following table shows the schedule for the price of coconut oil in the world market for the past year. In 2011 alone, price percentage changes fluctuated to a decrease as low as -14.82% in March and to an increase as high as 22.35% in November. The following table shows the schedule for the price of coconut oil in the world market for the past year. Health Benefits Coconut oil is known to be one of the more expensive oils. It can be seen in trends that among the widely used edible oils, coconut oil usually takes a higher level of prices. The following graph compares edible oil prices of soybean oil, palm oil, canola oil and coconut oil from 1997 to 2005. The steep downward slope of coconut oil was due to the Asian financial crisis. Coconut oil being more expensive than its competitors had suffered a lot from the crisis. As seen after the crisis, the trend is gearing upwards again. Edible Oil Prices from 1997 to 2005 Source: Index Mundi Figure Edible Oil Prices When talking about the global environment of the coconut oil industry, it is important to take note of the possible impact of recent medical research done on the health benefits that can possibly be acquired from coconut oil. As written by Singh, Seepersad and Rankine(2007), Over the last decade, there has been an increase in the number of scientific studies conducted relating to the merits of the traditional tropical diets premised on the use of fruits and vegetables as practiced in the Philippines and Hawaii. Also, studies focused on the merits of using some of the product derivatives such as coconut and palm oil as compared to traditional soybean and other unsaturated oils. Coconut oil has been proven to have a saturated fat, which is of the medium-chain fatty acid variety (MCFA). MCFAs are more readily digested by the body, in that MCFAs are not stored as fat but are immediately converted into energy. This results in an overall increase of the bodys metabolism. Studiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ showed that coconut oil prevented the formation of hepatic cholesterol esters. In addition to this, the lauric acid found in coconut oil provides the disease fighting fatty acid monolaurin, which boosts the immune system. Coconut reportedly has been proven to have no dangerous trans-fats, which are traditionally found in vegetable oils, margarines and shortenings. These substances have the effect of increasing the bodys production of LDLs or bad cholesterol, which has implications for heart disease, diabetes and other health problems. Conclusion The Philippine Coconut Oil industry, which started over a century ago, bloomed and is still consistently profiting from selling cooking oil to the local and global market. Though it has been affected by the Asian Financial Crisis, it still managed to recover. It was able to brought back its sales. The trend of using coconut oil is still consistent. The Philippines produces and exports coconut oil in the same degree. Despite the fluctuating prices and volumes sold of coconut oil, the percentage it contributes to the Philippines GDP has been overall consistent over the past few years. With new technology, the production of coconut oil has been and is consistently getting better. There are fewer wastes, and the cooking oil manufacturers are finding ways to use these wastes for other purposes. My uncle who is part of this industry and one of the leading manufacturers of coconut oil says they are using the wastes as components for bio-fuel. The market for coconut oil has been consistent throughout these past few years despite the costs of coconut oil against its substitutes. Though edible coconut oil is a lot more expensive than oil made from other products such as palm oil, coconut oil is still welcomed by the market. With this statistics, I would like to believe that the coconut oil industry would continue to move on and still be successful in future. Despite the indications of the industry degrading, still shows consistent performance.

Tuesday, August 20, 2019

Muted group theory: Research

Muted group theory: Research Abstract The motivation behind this report is to research the muted group theory, for the purpose to spread the finding to students taking the level 200 communications paper, this theory may be used in the final exam for this paper so there is a large necessity for the finding to be correct. While it is hard to understand the interest in this feminist theory there is an underlying interest fact for both male and female students. The problem in this report is the misunderstanding on the theory, the name itself is misleading, giving a misconception that it has something to do with the physical inability to speak. The way this problem was solved was through a collection and evaluation of various books and articles related, n some cases mildly and others majorly, to the theory. The result from the research that was done was that, in short, the muted group theory is a mental problem where through the dominant group of a culture the mute group is forced into alliteration. This theory is important; it points out the obvious ideas about female cultures and explains reasons behind what they are, how they become that way and who makes it happen. Introduction The purpose of this report is to gain the knowledge of what the mute group theory is, who researched the theory, why they did, how it contributed to the way we communication and what is the future for this theory. The intended way in which this will be achieved is through researching the theorists findings and collectively reporting on them, in a way in which my audience will understand. The limitations of this report were mainly funding, to gain access the most of the theorists articles, paid logins were required, or the funding to buy books that arent readily accessible. Another limitation was the catalogue at the Whitireia library, while there were an abundance of feminist related books there was a limited amount related to this in particular theory. The ability to read an index, I found myself looking for a replacement book in the last few days when I realised that the one I was using had nothing to do with Kramarae. Lack of knowledge, towards the end of the time I had for the report I discovered that Kramarae had a different name for a period of her research. Lastly, time management was a major limitation. The methods used to research this theory were books from the library, articles from Proquest and articles researched from the internet. In this report you will find a literature review, the findings, Conclusion, a summary of points of information and a critique of the theory. Literature Review Two Books Belenky, M. F. (1986). Womens ways of knowing: the development of self, voice and mind. In Introduction (pp.4-17). New York: Basic books. Kramarae is used in the introduction chapters as an example into the background of the study. In this section the author discussed the feelings of women not being served adequately on their needs as women, the idea that women find it harder to establish themselves in roles of authority, talking about the suggestion that women as often unheard or ignored in most situations even when they feel that they know something important that should be shared, along with the feeling of being ignored they feel they are being discouraged from practising any intellectual line of work that is typically male dominated as it is seen as being ‘unfeminine and unreachable with what women are suppose to be capable of. It is an unspoken idea amongst the male culture that women should e seen but not heard. Even now in the modern world, where things have supposably changed it is still relatively rare to find females in roles of authority. I found this book to have the third largest amount of detail on my theory from the books Whitireia library had to offer. The first being Readings in Feminist Rhetorical Theory the second being my text book. I was disappointed with the lack of direct mention of the mute group theory. I found that I had to read between the lines to gather anything helpful from this book. Not helpful, was the fact that in this small section of a chapter the author was using a multitude of examples from various theorists to explain herself. Griffen, C. L., Foss, K. A., Foss, S. K. (2004). Readings in Feminist Rhetorical Theory. In Cheris Kramarae (pp. 8-44). Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. The chapter of this book devoted to Cheris Kramarae opens with a background of her development of education and how she became interested wit this theory. Moving on to the first section ‘Proprietors of language this section discusses the idea that in a male dominated culture the language is developed by male without consideration of females (the dominate group develops the language without consideration of the mute ­Ã‚ ­ group). The next section is titled ‘women as a way males/dominate groups inconsideration of the female/muted groups forces the compression of the muted group to begin with, i.e. having no connection to the culture dominate norms pushes the group deeper into decline. The third is ‘a visiting scholar talks about the oppression of past female scholars and their research making the present research redundant and repetitive if it had been openly accessible. The next ‘Do we really want more control of technology discusses the possible idea that technology cold release the muted group by giving them the opportunity to be a part of the new language developed with the new culture the technology is producing, also the sceptical again this idea. The final chapter titled ‘Feminist theories of communication discusses the multiple other female theories, these are all directed solely towards female culture while most non-feminist theory doesnt take this into account and results in misleading and dangerous ideas in relation to womens experiences. I found that the majority of this chapter didnt directed related to mute group theory more about feminist theories in general and relating them quietly to the mute group theory. But the points that are discussed are interesting while only slightly topical. Being only written five years ago found it did appear rather outdated when talking about technology. Two Database Articles Cheris Kramarae. (2003). Women, Work and Computing / Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women in Computing. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. NWSA Journal, 15(2), 207-210. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 423976331). This article is a response to an earlier article on the relationship between women and the computer industry The article points out that the percentage of women in this industry is declining but the is little know of why the original article was about Ruth Woodfield, Jane Margolis and Allan Fishers research into this mystery. They conclude with the reasoning of the culture of computing still being male dominated, there is still the potential though, for female to break through this. This article discusses the idea of genderless universe allowing a theoretical ‘reset on the idea on society in the virtual world this is plausible but in the physical it is impossible in regards to male superiors over employees, also many dominate group fear the idea of gender bending they do not want to be deceived or loss there power. This idea does not seem like it would conclude with the potential goal set foreword. Finally two points are pointed out that were missed from the initial article, there was no mention of race issues in obtaining degrees and secondly that the females that do pervade in this industry are stereotyped hostility with underserved labels. I found this article less than helpful in comparison to the other reading I collected, while it was written by the theorist herself there was little to no mention directly on the mute group theory, which I expected from the title. Although there are many points that I myself would relate easily to her theory. Cheris Kramarae. (2005). Muted Group Theory1 and Communication: Asking Dangerous Questions. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. Women and Language, 28(2), 55-61,72. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 974623021) Kramarae explains examples about mute group theories mainly on the constraints of women due to the donate male group ‘belittling their intellectual property, and academic works, she explains about how language is male oriented and is subjective against women. She also talks about the relation of other cultures and races with the mute group theory. She then movies on to the history of muted women for the past 500 years and how when she first started working on her theory it was radical and topical, people were interested and fascinated but now this not so interesting, she puts this up to the fact that the world must be changing and fixing itself through technology, changing the definitions of the original male defined language with less discomfort in the words that are used commonly in society. After that she compares standpoint theory with mute group theories, both theories relate the different in gender perception to their differing experiences and affects of their views. Empathy towards others and trying to see others views could help solve many group problems. Mute group theories looks at groups while standpoint looks at the individual. Later she points out that by trying to use the group theory; results can easily turn into essentialism by trying to not miss a viewpoint of a group you can look over another. This article was written by Cheris Kramarae herself, talking directly about her very own theory, by my option I would say that makes the article very accurate. It was a Journal from Proquest. Two Internet Articles Baer, J. (2009). Muted Group Theory by Cheris Kramarae. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from University of Colorado at Boulder web site: http://www.colorado.edu/Communication/meta-discourses/Papers/App_Papers/Baer.htm This paper refers to both theorists Kramarae and Ardener (female and male), and describes there different approaches. Ardener seeing women as being constructed differently causing differences in the way they act. Defining muteness as being lower in status than the dominate group. Kramarae differs, defining muteness as the lack of power a group holds. She says that women a perceived as not only holds. She says that women a perceived as not only being less powerful, but also as a group use a different language than the dominant group. This language to men is harder to understand as it is not worth it. Muteness is a dominant-group created problem. The next section is a case study explaining a work situation where there are two males and four females. Where the two males and one of the females are higher positions and the other three females are there assistants. The female that is in a higher role is there through conversion to the male manners to gain their acceptances, by relation her assistant was also accepted by the males and they listened to both. The other two female assistants were treated as lesser valued workers, while they acted like females they were treated as well by their overheads, but their ideas in relation to the work were ignored or suppressed to gain the clients respect. The last section is the critique of the theory. The writer of this paper tends to agree with the proposed ideas with the muted group theory. Making points on her own evidence that for the 25 years Kramarae worked on muted group theory there was little change and nothing very big. Not much change in the way women are viewed between 1970s and 1990s. This paper was very relevant to the mute group theory, it compared the two theorists and gave a real life example, although it would have been more interesting if it was written by a male instead of another female. McLaughlin, D. (1999). Research report on Edwin Ardeners â€Å"Belief and the Problem of Women†. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from Oak University Website http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~dm419397/mgres.htm This is a report on the Edwin Ardeners article ‘Belief and the problem with women. The author D.McLaughlin reports on this simular theorist to get a further view of the theory. Ardener and Kramarae share the same ideas of the theory, that women or the muted group are muted by the unfairness in their language from the male or dominate group. The differences found in the theorist are that Ardener splits his theory in two parts, technical and analytical. Technical, in which the point of man-made language falls, women that cannot communicate through this dialect are outcast as inarticulate. Analytical, in which women have to work harder in society to provable and must change to fit the male norms. This was researched through the observation of the Cameroon tribes, where females would have to participate in ‘rite s of passage rituals including seclusion, tests and rapes. Once past, they would be rewarded with respect and acceptance from the males. Ardeners; idea of women is that their ultimate goal is to achieve the respect of male to be on a ‘level playing field. The author concludes with the idea that this comparison is a symbolic look at our male dominated society in regards to the Cameroon tribes, that women everywhere must adjust their ways to achieve male acceptance. I found it interesting to read the male theorists take on the mute group theory, although I was disappointed by the fact that there definitions were incredibility simular, I did find that his comparison of the western culture and Cameroon tribes helped me understand the ideas that arise though his take on the theory. While the article was on a male theorist it was written by a female student, I would be more interested to get a purely male take on the theory. Findings Background Of Theorist Cheris Kramarae was born 1938 in South Dakota. Throughout the sixties and seventies she gain a B.S. degree in journalism and English, an M.S. degree in journalism and English and a Ph.D. in speech Communication, she then went on to teach in the speech Communication department at the University of Illinois. She then focused her work in the structure and use of language. Outline Of The Theory/key Issues To define muted group theory, the muted group must first be defined. The muted group are not technically mute, but though the language their culture supplies them with, are unable to articulate themselves to the extent of the non-muted or dominate group, the dominate group being the superior group of people in the culture that hold the power to the decisions that define the culture, they take little to no consideration to the non-dominant or muted groups in their culture when creating the norms, through which pushing the muted group further into recession. The muted group theory is the theory through which this group occurs, with the dominate groups invention of the language without the thought of the recessed group. The mute group differs from the dominant though their experiences and perceptions of these. Kramaraes theory is mainly feminist oriented, the mute group being woman and the dominant being men. Women are seen in society as lower beings compared to men, seldom involved in promotions in the workplace when there is another alternative along with examples like being tricked into being kept ‘in their place. Application Of The Theory With the rate technology is advancing Karamaraes vision for the next steep of her theory is the movement into online communication interaction. Her idea is that online a person can be genderless, making communication uncontrolled by the muted group theory to abolish the norm of sexes getting different treatment according to their significance in society. To be treated other than mindless helpers to the dominant group, men, women must change the way they are perceived by men to be accepted by men, when they are accepted they then gain the respect of men and are treated like they belong to the dominant group, the way this is done is that a woman must adopt the characteristics of a male, using their language the way it was intended by the dominant group and copying there mannerisms. With the advances through technology, the internet has provided us with the environment and means, though with Kramaraes vision of the need to lose the female mannerisms to be accepted. With the new networki ng tools web 2.0 provided us with we can know create a new unbiased driven characters with sites like second life and games like world of Facebook. The dominant group however despise this idea, they are terrified at the idea that the power could shift, even the smallest degree so that muted groups proposals could be seen as important, or even more important than the current dominant group, hating the idea of even the possibility that Kramarae could be right they would never accept that women have their own personal language, to the dominant group all they are concerned with is power and how to use it against people. Evaluation Of The Theory Kramarae believes that women are the westerns cultures muted group of our culture, they are the repressed group driven into illiteracy through the actions of the dominate male group of our culture, creating the language we are forced to use daily through the raw fact that there is now alternative means to communication. To be accepted and pull themselves out from the depths of the male created recession, they must gain the respect of males through copying them and gaining acceptance into their dominant group. Kramarae hopes that this could be over come through the use of technology, changing our culture from dominant and muted groups to one large genderless group. Conclusion The reason this theory is important in society is it raises issues about the female culture, how they are formed through their experiences, and since their experiences differ from males they shape differing norms then males and since males norms are society norms, females not fit in. Do you find yourself questioning the way youre seen in the world? Are you naturally part of the dominant culture that will end up in a highly respected job role? Or are you part of the muted group being ignored while others are getting the recognition that you deserve? Or you in the dominant group, after gaining the respect from you new pears by throwing away the traits of your natural muted group? Will the future bring the genderless society that Kramarae wants? Its hard to tell, but from the little mention of this theory since the 90s it seems that perhaps its already happening. A Summary Of Points Of Information Kramarae focused her work in the structure and use of language. The mute group are the non-dominant people in a culture, unable to articulate themselves to the extent of the dominant group. In western culture this is the female group. Dominant group are the power holders of the culture, making the decisions that define the culture. In the western culture this is the male group The dominant group defines the culture to their norms. The groups differ mainly upon experiences and how their perceptions are formed through these. Kramaraes theory can be applied to online communication interaction Online a person can be genderless Genderless meaning that the rules and norms of their group are abolished. To be accepted by the dominant group, members of the muted group adopt the ways of that group. The ways of the dominant group being the way they use the language and their mannerisms. The genderless communication is can be applied through networking sites that are now readily accessible to anyone, for example Facebook or second life. The dominant group are concerned with this idea and find objectionable the idea of losing the power that they currently can use against people. A Critique Of The Theory When I began my research of this theory I thought that it was totally different from what it actually was. I had no idea that I was expected to research a feminist theory of with I am morally against. But once I studied Kramaraes findings I found myself confused about my opinion upon the theory. I got angry at the idea of this theory, I am not a stereotypical female in theory, and I participate in many male typical hobbies and in general am a bit of a ‘tom boy. So when I read Kramaraes generalisations about the female culture it annoyed me that I was supposed to fit into this generalisation. I found myself ranting at people about how this theory was so close minded and did not take into account the people who do not fit into these categorises. Once I had finished researching my topic I was still annoyed but from a different position, I was now able to agree with the theory on many levels, it makes sense. The idea was females being put lower in importance in this culture and the males being the decision makings, its true as all the years ago when these norms were established women we discouraged entirely from pursuing any type of power oriented positions. Now days its changed, women can gain these powerful positions and that all fits into Kramaraes theory, to get to these positions women must change their ways to gain the respect from the dominant group, adopting the characteristics of the males. I dont want to accept it but I guess that my ‘tom boy mannerisms can fit into this as trying to gain the respect of the males that I associate myself with. This theory was discovered by a female, most of the articles I read on the theory were written by females, the article I read on male viewpoint on the theory was written by a female. I think it would have been much more interesting to have more male inputs into this theory. It is my opinion that a male student should have been assigned this theory to research. Glossary Of Terms Dominant: the state that exists when one person or group has power over another; her apparent dominance of her husband was really her attempt to make him pay attention to her Mute/ muted: the equaliser of the dominant group, with a dominant group there is always the muted group. When one person or group has power over another, the power is taken away from the muted group to retain balance. Group: any number of entities (members) considered as a unit Theory: A hypothesis that has withstood extensive testing by a variety of methods, and in which a higher degree of certainty may be placed. A theory is NEVER a fact, but instead is an attempt to explain one or more facts Culture: the attitudes and behaviour that are characteristic of a particular social group or organization Genderless: Without an associated gender Facebook: Facebook is a free-access social networking website that is operated and privately owned by Facebook, Inc Second life: is an online 3D interactive virtual reality program which resembles console video games such as Final Fantasy, but is almost entirely built and influenced by the people who use it References Belenky, M. F. (1986). Womens ways of knowing: the development of self, voice and mind. In Introduction (pp.4-17). New York: Basic books. Griffen, C. L., Foss, K. A., Foss, S. K. (2004). Readings in Feminist Rhetorical Theory. In Cheris Kramarae (pp. 8-44). Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. Cheris Kramarae. (2003). Women, Work and Computing / Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women in Computing. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. NWSA Journal, 15(2), 207-210. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 423976331). Cheris Kramarae. (2005). Muted Group Theory1 and Communication: Asking Dangerous Questions. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. Women and Language, 28(2), 55-61,72. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 974623021) Baer, J. (2009). Muted Group Theory by Cheris Kramarae. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from University of Colorado at Boulder web site: http://www.colorado.edu/Communication/meta-discourses/Papers/App_Papers/Baer.htm McLaughlin, D. (1999). Research report on Edwin Ardeners â€Å"Belief and the Problem of Women†. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from Oak University Website http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~dm419397/mgres.htm Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory (7th ed.). In Muted group theory of Cheris Kramarae (pp. 454-465). New York: McGraw Hill. Bibliography CMM. (2009). Retrieved August 19, 2009, from http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/theory/mutedgrp.html Cari Porter. (1999). Muted Group Theory. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~cp300795/mg.htm Wikipedia. (2009). Muted group theory Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved August 19, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muted_group_theory WordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=dominance WordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=group WordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=culture Define: second life Google Search. (2009). Retrieved September 2009, from http://www.google.co.nz/search?hl=enclient=firefox-arls=org.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficialq=define%3A+second+lifebtnG=Searchmeta= TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR QUIZ.(2004).Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://blue.utb.edu/biology/oliva/terms_and_definitions_for_quiz_1.htm Facebook Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook Genderless – Wiktionary (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/genderless 20800537 2 / 15 Gestational diabetes: An analysis Gestational diabetes: An analysis Gestational diabetes: consequences for fetal programming of vascular disease in adulthood List of Abbreviations AGE Advanced Glycation End Products CNS- Central Nervous System EDHF- Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarising Factor eNOS Endothelium derived Nitric Oxide ECM- Extra Cellular Matrix FFA Free Fatty Acids GAD 65- Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase GDM-Gestational Diabetes Mellitus HDL- High Density Lipoprotein HPL- Human Placental Lactogen IA-2 Insulinoma- Associated Antigen 2 ICA- Islet Cell Antibody IRS-1 Insulin Receptor Substrate 1 IUGR Intrauterine Growth Restriction LDL- Low Density Lipoprotein MODY- Maturity Onset Disease of the Young MRS- Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy NO Nitric Oxide OS- Oxidative Stress PKC- Protein Kinase C ROS Reactive Oxygen species TNF-ÃŽ ±- Tumour Necrosis Factor ÃŽ ± T1D Type 1 Diabetes T2D Type 2 Diabetes ZnT8 Zinc Transporter 5-HT Serotonin Abstract Gestational Diabetes is a condition present in the later stages of pregnancy where the mother has insulin resistance leading to glucose intolerance. The aetiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus is largely unknown but several theories include autoimmune destruction of the beta cells, monogenic mutations and insulin resistance. In pregnancy it is normal for there to be some levels of insulin resistance and it is thought that the products of the placenta contribute to the state of insulin resistance as GDM usually subsides after pregnancy. GDM in pregnancy can lead to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in the offspring such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. This is due to the increased levels of oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators present during pregnancy. The placenta is very important as it is able to control and buffer the amount of glucose that is delivered to the fetus but if this level is too high then it is out of the placentas control and the fetus may have increased rate of growth due to this extra glucose. The current focus of research in this area seems to be into finding ways to diagnosis GDM earlier in the pregnancy and to try and reduce the amounts of oxidative stress. Gestational diabetes: consequences for fetal programming of vascular disease in adulthood Introduction Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) occurs when there is a glucose intolerance that is first detected during pregnancy. It is a form of hyperglycaemia (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). The aetiology of the condition is unknown but there have been many suggestions as to the cause of it, including autoimmune destruction of the ÃŽ ² pancreatic cells and the possibility of a genetic predisposition to the condition. Hormones that are produced in pregnancy help contribute to the insulin resistant state which characterises diabetes. In recent years, there has been an increase in the cases of Obesity and this is a risk factor for both Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease. The intrauterine environment can affect fetal programming and development. This essay will look into how the placenta and its products can affect the insulin resistant state and how this resistance effects programming as well as the role of oxidative stress and inflammation in making the offspring more susceptible to cardi ovascular disease. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) GDM is a state of insulin resistance which disturbs the intrauterine environment and can lead to accelerated fetal growth (Radaelli et al 2003).It effects approximately 7% of pregnant women with approximately 200,000 cases seen each year (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). The term GDM is applicable when the onset is during the second and third terms of the pregnancy, but it does not exclude the possibility that the insulin resistance was undiagnosed before the pregnancy. If this is the case and is found to occur in the earlier stages of pregnancy then the mother should be treated the same as mothers who are known to have diabetes before pregnancy (Metzger, Coustan 1998). There is a degree of insulin resistance in normal pregnancy which begins towards the middle of the pregnancy but during the later part of the second and the final trimester these can increase to levels of insulin resistance that are associated with type 2 diabetes (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). Insulin resistance is when the tissues do not produce a response to insulin due to problems with the secretion of insulin or where the tissues are desensitised to insulin and therefore lack the ability to produce a response (Catalano et al 2003). In a normal pregnancy, the mother changes her metabolism to allow a constant supply of nutrients to reach the fetus to support its rapid growth. Among these nutrients is glucose, which is the main energy source used by the fetus. During the later stages of pregnancy the mother becomes hypoglycaemic and although there is increased gluconeogenesis, the hypoglycaemia still occurs because there is a high rate of transport of glucose to the fetus (Herrera 2000 cited in Herrera and Ortega 2008). GDM can have effects that impact the development of the fetus such as hypoglycaemia and macrosomia, which is an increase in body weight and has the possibility of leading to problems when giving birth, such as shoulder dystocia (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). During the second trimester of pregnancy there is peripheral insulin resistance but there is also the possibility that hepatic insulin sensitivity is altered in pregnancy, although few studies confirm this. By the end of the pregnanc y the levels of insulin that are circulating are thought to be double those at the start (Redman 2001). Insulin Resistance Insulin resistance in GDM can occur in two forms. The first is where it develops in late pregnancy and it has been postulated that there is a post-receptor mechanism that may influence the insulin signalling pathway which leads to a reduced glucose uptake. The second form is where there is already a degree of resistance before the pregnancy but the changes that occur in normal pregnancy aggravate this (Metznger et al 2007). The insulin resistance that develops in pregnancy is much needed to allow the flow of nutrients, from the mother, directly to the fetus to allow for growth (Radaelli 2003). Increased insulin resistance leads to an increase in insulin secretion by the ÃŽ ² pancreatic cells (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). The insulin resistance is thought to be caused by increased adiposity and as the insulin resistance usually stops after pregnancy this suggests that there is a possibility that the products of the placenta are a potential cause of the resistance. During the course of the pregnancy the actual changes in glucose levels are very small. It would be assumed that the glucose levels would rise due to the increased insulin resistance but the pancreatic ÃŽ ² cells increase their secretion of insulin to maintain homeostatic glucose levels (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). GDM occurs because there is an increased demand for insulin which under normal circumstances can be met unless there are problems with the secretion of insulin leading to the development of hyperglycaemia. The majority of mothers who develop GDM have been discovered to have a degree of insulin resistance before they became pregnant. Therefore, with the insulin resistance that occurs in normal pregnancy it can be said that GDM occurs with a greater insulin resistance than normally present in gestation (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). Insulin resistance causes a decreased uptake of glucose into skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and liver as well as a decreased production of hepatic glucose. (Catalano et al 2003). One suggestion for insulin resistance looks into the possible role of the mitochondria. Studies using Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) have shown that in normal offspring of parents with type 2 diabetes, there is an increased amount of intramyocellular lipid. This has been shown to cause a reduced function in mitochondria which suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction may play a part in insulin resistance (Petersen et al 2004 cited in Morino et al 2005). It has been suggested that this increase in intramyocellular lipid activates a serine kinase cascade which causes an increase in the Insulin Substrate Receptor 1 (IRS-1), which inhibits insulin receptor phosphorylation on tyrosine sites. This can cause a decrease in the effects and utilisation of glucose. One study showed that in the insulin resistant offspring the mitochondrial density was reduced by just over a third to that of a normal offspring. This suggests that offspring who are insulin resistant may inherit a condition th at causes a reduction in rate oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria (Griffin et al 2009 cited in Morino et al 2005). Detection of GDM Diagnosis of GDM helps to identify pregnancies that are at risk of fetal morbidity as well as obesity and glucose intolerance in the offspring (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). GDM is hard to diagnose as it is asymptomatic. Normal diabetes could be diagnosed by glycosuria but in pregnancy the renal threshold to glucose is lowered so that glycosuria doesnt give a true representation of hyperglycaemia (Redman 2001). There are several risk factors of GDM which can be classified into three groups and help in the screening process. Low risk factors include women who are younger than 25, normal weight at conception, no known family members with diabetes and no history of glucose intolerance. High risk factors include obesity of the mother, diabetes in close relatives, a history of glucose intolerance, current glycosuria and previous pregnancies with GDM (Metzger and Coustan 1998 Chapter 25). Causes of Diabetes There are several theories as to why diabetes occurs and this has been thought to be similar to the underlying mechanisms that cause gestational diabetes. Diabetes is a result of pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction which can present in three main ways: autoimmune, a genetic cause and on top of already present insulin resistance (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). Autoimmune diabetes accounts for approximately 5-10% of all diabetic cases (American Diabetes Association 2010). There are circulating antibodies to the ÃŽ ² cells of the Islet of Langerhans. In GDM, there are a small number of women who have with these antibodies present in their circulation. It is thought that these cases present with GDM due to problems with insulin secretion caused by destruction of the Islets by the autoantibodies (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). This form is similar to type 1 diabetes. The Islet Cell Autoantibodies (ICA) have been shown to have four major molecular targets: Insulin, Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD 65), Insulinoma-associated antigen-2 (IA-2) and Zinc Transporter 8 (ZnT8) (Tree 2010). Monogenic diabetes has 2 general forms, one where there are mutations in autosomes and the other where there are mutations in the DNA of mitochondria. The first form is commonly referred to as Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY). In both cases onset tends to be at a young age and the patient doesnt present with insulin resistance or obesity (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). Mutations that cause MODY have been found in some women with GDM and commonly occur in genes coding for glucokinase, hepatocyte nuclear factor and insulin promoter factor, MODY is associated with beta cell dysfunction (Weng et al 2002). Chronic insulin resistance with beta-cell dysfunction seems to be the most common cause of GDM. As mentioned before there is an increase in insulin resistance in normal pregnancy but if this develops with background insulin resistance then there is an even greater insulin resistance which can lead to GDM. An established suggestion is that women who are unable to increase their secretion of insulin to cope with the insulin resistance developed in late pregnancy are more susceptible to developing GDM (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). However there could be various environmental processes that are involved in the underlying pathophysiology of GDM. The products of the placenta may also have a role in increasing or decreasing insulin resistance and these will be discussed later. Placental Function The placenta is an organ that has many roles during the development of the fetus. One of these functions is that it acts as a barrier to separate the maternal and fetal surfaces such that the syncytiotrophoblast surface exposes the placenta to the maternal circulation and the endothelium is exposed to the fetal circulation. This position between the two circulations means that the placenta is influenced by molecules from both circulatory systems, including cytokines, hormones and growth factors. The placenta produces molecules which can separately affect the maternal and fetal circulation and it expresses a large number of cytokines including leptin, resistin and tumour necrosis factor. However it has been discovered that these molecules are also produced by adipocytes. All molecules that are going from the mother to the fetus have to cross the placenta. Here they are either modified, for example lipids or like glucose, they are metabolised for placental purposes (Desoye et al 2008). The placenta plays an important role in fetal growth and the regulation of pregnancy (Giachini 2008). The placenta acts to sustain normal homeostatic levels and to carry out the functions of the vital organs. It also provides an immunological defence to the fetus and allows the exchange of molecules vital to its development (Jansson and Taylor 2007). Placental Development Approximately 4-5 days after conception, the process of cleavage causes rapid cell divisions and one of the groups of cells to form are called trophoblast cells. Further developmental processes form the blastocyte which is surrounded by an outer layer of the trophoblast cells. As the pregnancy progresses, the trophoblast cells develop into the placenta while the inner parts of the blastocyte form the embryo and umbilical cord (Huppertz 2008). The blastocyte implants itself onto the epithelium of the uterus where it differentiates into a syncitiotrophoblast which is able to implant itself in the epithelium leading to it being embedded into the decidual part of the uterus (Huppertz 2008). After the attachment of the blastocyte, the trophoblast layer divides very quickly and changes into 2 layers; the inner cytotrophoblastic layer and the outer syncytiotrophoblastic mass (Gude et al 2004).The whole implantation process takes 12 days to complete and after this the fetus is fully embedded into the endometrial layer (Huppertz 2008). The chorionic plate is the surface of the placenta that faces the fetus and this is where the umbilical cord inserts. The basal plate is the surface that faces the mother which contains many types of cells including immune cells such as macrophages and killer cells to carry out the placentas immunological function. The maternal basal plate and the fetal chorionic plate converge to form the smooth chorion which is composed of three layers (Huppertz 2008). When the trophopblast invades the endothelium there is a remodelling of the uterine spinal arteries which is necessary to ensure that the fetus and the placenta receive an adequate blood and nutrient supply and is able to remove any waste materials. This direct supply of blood and nutrients to the placenta can define it as being haemochorial villous organ (Gude et al 2004). After the rapid divisions of the trophoblast and development into 2 layers there are two pathways that can occur, the villous and extravillious pathways. The extravillious pathway results in the trophoblast being able to invade into the decidua and cause the remodelling of the uterine arteries to increase blood supply to the placento-fetal unit. The villious pathway has a transportation function as well as having endocrine and protective functions (Gude et al 2004). Normal Placentation Placentation involves the structure and function of the placenta. The process of placentation is helped by the composition and arrangement of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the endometrium. Studies on rats induced with diabetes provided results that showed that diabetes has an effect on the distribution of the ECM molecules. This study by Giachini et al illustrates that Types I and III collagen as well as other molecules, such as proteoglycan molecules decorin and biglycan were distributed throughout normal and diabetic placentas. It was shown that diabetes affects the expression of fibronectin and an increase in deposition of fibronectin may cause changes to the ECM structure which could affect the transfer of molecules from the mother to the fetus. One way in which changes in the ECM can be overcome is to test blood glucose levels frequently during the pregnancy and if kept in normal ranges this can dramatically decrease the prevalence of diseases and disorders present in the fe tus (Giachini et al 2008). As the pregnancy progresses the size of the placenta increases which also means an increase in the amount of products that the placenta produces therefore increasing in the insulin resistance (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). This is because the net effect of the products of the placenta is to increase insulin resistance. The increase in size of the placenta means that it needs an increased blood supply. Failure of the mother to increase its blood supply to the placenta can lead to placental insuffiency which if exacerbated can be attributed to be a cause of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). This growth restriction is more related to poor maternal nutrition rather than to a cause of GDM. GDM have been associated with an increased fetal and placental weight (Jansson and Taylor 2007). One of the reasons why GDM and increased insulin resistance affects the fetus is that while glucose can cross the placenta, insulin is unable to. This means that the fetal pancreas has to compensate by producing more insulin to prevent high blood glucose levels. The fetal pancreas is capable of doing this and the liver responds to the higher levels of insulin by increasing its production of glucose (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). Offspring who have an increase in birth weight have been shown to be at risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes later in life. The main risk factor for this is poor transfer of nutrients via the placenta (Jansson and Taylor 2007). How dramatic these changes are depends on how good the control of blood glucose levels have been during the development of the placenta, if any treatment has been received and if there were any periods of away from normal glucose levels (Desoye 2006). How does diabetes affect Placentation? Diabetic insults at the beginning of the pregnancy can have long last effects of the placenta. One of the roles of the placenta is that it is able to buffer excess maternal glucose which can help to keep the fetal glucose levels within range However if the insult lasts longer than the placenta is able to compensate for then excessive fetal growth may occur (Desoye Mouzon 2007). In diabetes there is endothelial dysfunction which can lead to vascular disease. The endothelial cells help to control the vascular tone of the smooth muscle lining the vasculature. They do this by producing substances that help to vasodilate the smooth muscle including Nitric Oxide, Prostacyclin and Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarising Factor (EDHF). There have been several studies to suggest different mechanisms of how diabetes affects the endothelium including impaired release of these vasodilating molecules, faults with signal transduction and increased release of constricting mediators of the endothelium. The dysfunction of the endothelium in diabetes is thought to be caused by activation of protein kinase C (PKC) as well as increased oxidative stress, non-enzymatic glycation and an increased activation of the polyol pathway (De Vries et al 2000).The main reason why these effects occur is thought to be due the activation of the protein kinase C pathway and the increased oxidative stress. This can cause early damage to the development of vascular vessels (Roberts and Raspollini 2008). These mechanisms will be discussed later. The effect of hormones produced in pregnancy Pregnancy causes changes in the circulating hormones and cytokines which can all have different effects on insulin resistance and this may help explain the mechanism underlying the resistance that is found in pregnancy and in GDM. Cytokines produced in pregnancy, such as TNF-ÃŽ ±, Adiponectin and Leptin have been found to cause an increase in the insulin resistance (Gao et al 2008). In early pregnancy, the levels of oestrogen and progesterone rise but no net effect is seen as the two have antagonistic effects. Oestrogen increases the binding of insulin to its receptor whereas progesterone reduces the ability of insulin to bind (Ryan and Enns 1988). Cortisol levels in pregnancy increase so that by the end of the pregnancy the levels are three times that of what they were at the beginning (Gibson and Tulchinski 1980 cited in Yogev et al Chapter 10). Studies have shown that with increased amounts of cortisol there was a decrease in insulin sensitivity causing insulin resistance (Rizza et al 1982 cited in Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10). During pregnancy the levels of prolactin increase up to ten times the normal amount (Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10). Studies have shown that in a culture of pancreatic beta cells, prolactin can cause an increase in levels of secreted insulin (Sorenson et al 1993 cited in Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). However, high levels of prolactin are not seen to be a pathological cause of GDM (Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10). Human placental lactogen (HPL) is a hormone, and its levels rise during the second trimester of pregnancy. This causes a decrease in the phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS1) which can lead to significant insulin resistance (Ryan and Enns 2008 cited Yogev et al 2008 ch 10). Leptin is associated with obesity and concentrations of leptin have been shown to be related to the concentration of insulin in the plasma. In pregnancy the leptin levels increase dramatically. During pregnancy the mother uses her fat stores to support fetal growth and it is thought that the leptin levels increase with the mobilisation of these fat stores. Leptin levels relate to the body mass of the individual (Sattar et al 1998). Placental Leptin is the same in structure and charge to the one produced by adipose tissue (Ashworth et al 2000). One study showed that high leptin concentrations in the umbilical cord increased the likelihood of developing fetal macrosomia (Wiznitzer et al 2000). It is also thought that leptin effects insulin sensitivity by effecting glucose metabolism in both skeletal muscle and in hepatocytes. Rats that received an external source of leptin were found to have an increase in gluconeogenesis which accounted for the majority of hepatic glucose production ( Rossetti et al 1997). In GDM there is a greater secretion of TNF-alpha in response to glucose. TNF-alpha functions to regulate metabolism of glucose and lipids as well as being involved in insulin resistance. Many studies suggest that TNF-alpha is involved in the progression to GDM. They found that an increase in glucose cause the placenta and adipose tissue to increase production of TNF-alpha in some cases up to 4 times more than non-diabetic pregnant(Coughlan et al 2001). One study showed that the increases in the levels of TNF-alpha during pregnancy increased consistently with increases in body weight (Catalano et al cited in Yogev et al 2008). Adiponectin is a protein derived from adipose tissue and its function is to regulate insulin resistance and maintains levels of glucose. During pregnancy it has been found that its levels drop and could therefore lead to the increase insulin resistance found in GDM (Gao, Yang, Zao 2008). Adiponectin has also been found to decrease the secretion of TNF-alpha which as stated above can lead to insulin resistance (Hotamisligil 1999 cited in Yogev et al Chapter 10 2008). Adiponectin may cause increased insulin sensitivity as its concentration decreases throughout the gestational period (Desoye and Mouzon 2007). Resistin is a protein that is produced by adipose tissue and is thought to be involved in insulin resistance in diabetes and is associated with obesity (Steppan and Lazar 2002) In pregnancy, resistin is secreted by the placenta and this secretion reaches its peak by the last trimester (Yura et al cited in Megia et al 2008). Studies show that TNF-alpha is an important factor in insulin resistance during pregnancy and with inputs from leptin and cortisol there is altered glucose metabolism whereas inputs from oestrogen, progesterone and prolactin had little significant effects (Kirwan and Mouzon 2002). There are many hormones produced during pregnancy, mainly by the placenta and adipose tissue that have varying affects but with the overall impact being insulin resistance. Inflammation in Diabetes There are genes in the placenta which regulate reorganisation of the endothelium and inflammatory responses and in GDM these were found to be altered. The increase in leptin receptors suggests that in the placenta this can cause proinflammatory responses (Radaelli 2003). One of the current theories is that the abnormal metabolic environment in GDM can lead to increased production of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. Molecules such as TNF-alpha, Resistin and Leptin increase during pregnancy and these increases in these inflammatory mediators produce metabolic changes by increasing insulin resistance (Desoye and Mouzon 2007). Leptin and TNF-alpha activate phospholipase A2 which are a family of eicosanoid precursors that go on to produce essential fatty acids such as w3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Desoye Mouzon 2007). There has been a recent investigation which found that with increased adiposity at birth there has been an increase in w3 fatty acids in the placenta (Verastehpour et al 2005 cited Desoye and Mouzon 2007). As stated before, the placenta produces cytokines but it is also a site of action of the cytokines. It is the location of the receptors for these cytokines will influence if the cytokines act on the mother, the placenta or the fetus. With cytokines there is very little transfer across the placenta from mother to fetus and the origin of the cytokines in the fetus can be from either the placenta or from the fetus itself (Desoye and Mouzon 2007). Fetal Programming Many studies have highlighted the fact that events that occur while the fetus is developing can alter its developmental pathway and have adverse outcomes in later life. Fetal programming describes how the environment can affect certain developmental events of which the effects are permanent and can affect processes such as metabolism and the organisms physiology. Women with GDM have an increased risk of the fetus developing macrosomia (Catalano 2008 Chapter 11). The main factor that effects the growth of the fetus is the maternal environment and there is a strong association with the weight and height of the mother and the growth of the fetus such that mothers who are heavier and taller will produce heavy babies. (Love and Kinch 1965 cited in Catalano 2008 Chapter 11). The placenta and fetal programming The placenta is very important to the developmental processes of the fetus as it is able to change the quantity of signals and nutrients that the fetus receives. Deviation from normal would alter the fetal programming, thus making it more susceptible to disease in later life. Pregnancies that are complicated by GDM have excessive oxidative and nitrate stress which has been found to change the activity of certain proteins. Oxidative and nitrate stress alter the placentas function and may cause changes in the fetal programming. Nutrient transfer depends largely on the normal development of the vasculature to allow blood flow and this can be affected by GDM which can cause a decrease in the flow of substrates and is a mechanism in which fetal programming can be affected (Myatt 2006). Fetal programming involves a large amount of development plasticity and interruptions to this development may cause abnormalities in the development of certain cells which may progress to structural differences in organ development (Gluckman and Hanson 2004 cited in Jansson and Powell 2008 ref 16). Effects to the fetus exposed to GDM If a fetus is exposed to a diabetic environment during pregnancy then there can be certain long term effects. These effects can be classified into three groups; Anthropometric, Metabolic or Vascular and Neurological or Psychological. Anthropometric changes are concerned with the rates of growth for both height and weight and in a diabetic environment these can be excessive leading to macrosomia and obesity in later life. Metabolic and vascular changes that occur are abnormal glucose tolerance which can eventually lead to diabetes mellitus. Finally the neurological and psychological changes that can occur are usually minor but development of psychological and intellect can sometimes be deficient (Dabelea and Pettitt 2008). Potential problems that may arise with the fetus from an exposure to maternal diabetes include abnormal organ mass, altered angiogenesis and increased levels of fetal insulin (Fetita 2006). It has also been found that if there is an increase in weight during pregnancy then there is usually a higher birth weight of the fetus (Humphreys 1954 cited in Catalano 2008 Chapter 11). The developing fetus cannot synthesise glucose and is dependent on the mother to produce it where it is transported to the fetus via facilitated diffusion through the placenta (Aerts et al 1996 cited in Mello, Parretti and Hod 2008). The result of decreased insulin sensitivity is that there is more glucose available to the developing fetus which can lead to a greater birth weight (Mello, Parretti and Hod 2008). Using animal models, it has been shown that exposure to high levels of glucose in utero can lead a diminished number of nephrons in the offspring (Amri et al 1999 cited in Fetita 2006 ref 68). This is important as nephrogenesis only occurs in the fetus and stops after birth (Gomez, Norwood 1999). It has been shown that a reduction in the numbers of nephron may affect the rate of progression of renal disease in adults due to an inability to secrete sodium. This may later develop into salt-sensitive hypertension (Brenner et al 1988). The mechanisms of reduced organ mass, high levels of fetal insulin and defects in angiogenesis may help explain how the fetus programs abnormal glucose tolerance in adulthood as a result of exposure to GDM (Fetita 2006). Transmission of diabetes from mother to offspring Exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus increases the risk of the fetus developing abnormal glucose tolerance which may develop into type 2 diabetes. (Fetita et al 2006). The association between greater incidences of the offspring having diabetes with a mother with GDM is greater than what would be predicted that could be passed on by maternal genetics (McLean et al 2006). One study showed that the phenotype for GDM/T2D was more common in daughters of mothers who were diabetic rather than daughters